Why then did Luke rewrite Mark in a considerably different vein and especially why the necessity to write a "history": of the early community?  Taking as a guide (for Luke's purpose for writing) the hints given in the Gospel's prologue, one might express Luke's purpose for writing as follows:
            a. to set down an orderly account of the events fulfilled, among the early disciples and
            b. to insure that Greco-Roman readers might know the truth concerning the things about which they were instructed--see Luke 1:1-4.

            1) Indeed, Luke wants Theophilus, and other Greco-Roman readers, to know the truth about Jesus and the Jesus movement.  Many things are being said, preached, and written about Jesus, so Luke insists that foremost in this regard is God's overall design (the divine plan).  This God who controls and acts in history for humanity's sake (see the themes of divine necessity, fulfillment, divine intervention and direction of human events throughout Luke and Acts) has sent Jesus as perfect, obedient agent in the Gospel--this is also true in Acts, though the theme of agency is more complex in this second volume, since Jesus operates especially with the assistance of his disciples.  The truth that Theophilus needs to know concerns God's visitation and care for humanity through Jesus.  Luke's Gospel professes to be an orderly account of the divine plan, for it intends to present "God's point of view" (see Acts 2:22-24): Jesus is God's Messiah (9:20), who has come, has taken a long salvific journey to the Father via Jerusalem (9:51f), and is now lord of heaven (where he will remain until his return: Acts 3:21; 7:55-56) and lord of the Church.  From his abode at the right hand of the Father he acts on behalf of his people directly and especially through his Word and the Spirit; this is repeatedly demonstrated in a variety of iterative events and themes throughout Acts.  It is also expressed through numerous missionary journeys (parallel to that of Jesus) on the way to the Roman capitol.

            2) Further, Luke's work intends to present instruction about God's Messiah, God's mediator par excellence, the one who teaches in speeches, confrontation and parables about God, the kingdom, discipleship, eschatology, and about his own role in God's plan.  Jesus is God's Messiah sent to Israel and the nations, one who is humane, concerned for the lowly, for women, for the poor, who gives the Spirit, who acts through chosen agents, who is at God's right hand but is mysteriously present and whose return is anxiously awaited--ultimately he is the one who plays the central role in God's plan for human salvation, whether directly in the Gospel or indirectly through various agents and mysteriously as "absent Lord" in Acts.

            3) The events that Luke speaks about in the Gospel and Acts are the things fulfilled among the early disciples, for it is through the agency of the Spirit that first Jesus (see role of Spirit in Jesus' baptism and life) and then the disciples (pervasive pentecost theme in Acts 2, 4, 8, 11, 19) act as God's messengers and preachers of the good news.  Indeed, the disciple, like their Master, are mediators of God's plan and message about religious/political freedom, innocence, activity within the Greco Roman world, the poor/riches, universalism, community, and more generally God's plan.

            4) Finally, Luke is keenly aware that the events being described are greatly influenced by and that the resulting text needs to be sensitive to Roman apologetics in view of its Greco-Roman readers.  Thus, Luke misses few opportunities in the Gospel and Acts to underscore the theme of universalism, whether of salvation or the character of the Jesus movement.  Jesus as Son of God is also the son of Adam, the agent of salvation for all flesh, the one who sends out apostolic missions to both Jews and Gentiles, the one whom the Roman authorities found innocent (Luke 23; see also Acts 26:31-32).  The movement itself begins in Jerusalem and spreads out to Rome, the center of the Empire (or in Lukan terms: "the ends of the earth"--Acts 1:8.

            Luke wrote for a new audience and with a new, universalist perspective.  Indeed, Luke saw in the story of Jesus (in the land of Israel in the Gospel) and of the beginnings of the Jesus movement (Jesus and his disciples as agents of God's plan throughout the Greco-Roman world in Acts) the working out of the promise God made to Israel that salvation would be offered to all flesh (Luke 3:6; Acts 26:28).  Theophilus and his fellow Greco-Roman readers are to find in Luke's narrative trustworthy instruction about God's care for humanity as expressed in the story of Jesus and his early disciples. Indeed, the Jesus movement is spreading from Jerusalem throughout the Roman empire and is doing well even in the Roman capitol as it opens its arms to all comers (Acts 28:31).  But that is not the end of the story, for Luke or for other gospel writers, for the reader, knowing that Jesus is at the right hand of God at present (see Acts 7:55-56), has been told that Jesus will one day return just as he has departed from his disciples (Acts 1:11).  In the interim there is much living and work to do throughout the Roman Empire--the good news is available to all who seek to find (see Acts 17:24-28).   Luke wrote the Hellenistic communities of the time for the reasons stated in the Gospel (1:1-4).

1. Historical, Oral, Jesus Levels                        12. Alexander the Great
2. Form Criticism                                              13. The Septuagint (LXX)
3. Sadducees                                                     14. Herod Antipas
4. Hellenistic Greek                                          15. Moses Typology
5. Q-Source                                                      16. Son of God
6. Messiah                                                        17. Roman Procurators
7. Pompey the Great                                         18. Synoptics
8. Josephus                                                       19. Redaction Criticism
9. Apocalypticism                                             20 Pontius Pilate
10. Son of Man                                                 21. Hebrew & Aramaic
11. Diaspora                                                     22. Herod the  Great

Focus of the identifications: what or who (clear) and why important for our purposes?

            Thus Luke writes the story of Jesus with a Greco-Roman reader in mind and a Gentile missionary field in view.  Jesus seeks the lost (sheep, coin, brothers--Luke 15), welcomes "all flesh," even the Gentiles in the highways and byways (14:23).  Luke also presents the Jesus movement's early days in Acts to demonstrate both its vicissitudes and its divine blessing as it develops on the Greco-Roman stage.  In fact, the early disciples encounter every type of social, political, and cultural context possible as they announce the good news to the ends of the world, beginning in Jerusalem (Acts 1:8; 28:31).

            We could spend time both on Luke's unitive or iterative techniques of presenting a host of themes and events as well as on Luke's literary and narrative ability and accomplishment (series of trials, of speeches, of journeys, of pentecost experiences, etc), but at this point it suffices to reread the text of Acts as a continuation and a confirmation of the spread of the good news through the Roman world.  For Luke the role of the disciples here in Acts is to witness to God's activity among humans through Jesus "to all flesh."  There is optimism and confidence that God is in control and that God's Messiah is present, though absent, at every turn as the disciples traverse the highways and byways of the Roman Empire.   Thus Paul, the personification of the ever-present Christian follower, is in jail as the story ends but is free (earlier declared innocent: 26:31) and ready to announce the good news of God's salvation to all comers (Acts 28:30-31).

            It would be possible at this point to review the Lukan plot, the Lukan Gospel and its relation to Mark's story, as well as insist on the Gospel's relation to Acts.  Please consult your notes on this issues.

            We present here a short study of some of the major Lukan themes and they are found through the Gospel (and to a lesser extent in Acts).  We should at this point remember the basic outline of Luke's story:
                                Jesus & John 1:1-4:13 (+ prologue)      (Lukan addition of birth stories)
                                Jesus in Galilee 4:14-9:50                     (much Lukan redactional activity)
                                journey to Jerusalem 9:51-19:27           (emphasis on/addition to journey)
                                Jerusalem ministry 19:28-21:38            (regular redactional activity)
                                death & resurrection 22:1-24:52           (addition of resurrection stories).
The above plan of the gospel clearly follows the basic Markan outline (we spent some time on this in class).  The structure and its additions however are very different and very Lukan.

            Luke's Gospel begins with a long section on John and Jesus (1:5-4:13), a section inherited in part from Mark but greatly augmented by parallel annunciation and birth narratives in chapters 1 and 2.  Luke's purpose is to discourse on their respective roles, the first being the prophet of the Most High, the second the Son of God, the Most High (see 1:76 and 1:35--the importance of John and the John movement is treated at length in Acts 19:1-7).  Already in this early section Luke announces a host of important themes such as the salvation offer to Jew and Gentile (2:32--see 9:1f and 10:1f), the divided response to Jesus and his message (2:34), the themes of divine necessity (2:49 and often) and universalism (3:6, 38, etc)--look at your class notes at this point, especially this list of themes in part 2.

            But again as is true in Mark, the Lukan Jesus moves to Galilee (4:14-9:50), where he begins his ministry, following his earlier reception of the Spirit at baptism (3:21-22).  He delivers a programmatic speech at Nazareth (4:16f), where the reader learns of his characteristic mission to the poor, the crippled, the blind, the maim (4:18f; 7:21f), and to all flesh (see earlier).  He delivers the well-known "sermon on the plain" (6:20f; see v. 17 and contrast with Matt 5:1f), and preaches the good news in word and deed.  At 9:51f begins the climactic journey to Jerusalem, during which journey he preaches and teaches his disciples and the crowds in view of his impending departure to the Father (to Jerusalem and to the Father's right hand).  There in Jerusalem he will preach and act for a time in anticipation of his destiny as God's innocent/righteous servant and son (23:47--see also Acts 26:30-32 and contrast the former with Mark 15:39).  In Jerusalem Jesus meets his destiny and there too he is vindicated by the Father as he departs from his disciples, while promising them the gift of the Spirit, the Father's promise (24:49).

            Slowly it becomes clear to the attentive reader that the portrait of Jesus (and indeed of the disciples and others) is quite different from what one finds in Mark's response to an apocalyptic community.  Jesus is see as God's Messiah (9:20--the Messiah of God, the last two words, remember, being added to Mark 8:29).  His life and mission is one of visitation in God's name (7:16), one of implementing God's plan for the salvation of all humanity, whether Israel or the Gentiles (see 2:32), even to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8b)--even the little child has the Father's work at the center of his life (see 2:49).  Jesus may be at God's right hand as the story of Luke ends but he is every present as "absent Lord" in the Acts of the Apostles, i.e., in the lives and activity of the risen Lord's followers as they travel the roads of the Roman empire.  Jesus is indeed the "absent Lord," present in his Spirit and in his disciples as intermediaries.

            Reread the story of Luke and keep an eye on the Markan version to see how that story has taken a rather different shape and conveys a far different message than its proximate source, Mark.

            As the Jesus movement increased in membership and spread throughout the Mediterranean basin, new challenges and problems, new needs and sheer creativity led early Christians to reflect upon the community's tradition, whether Mark or other written and oral resources.  Thus another author, Luke, found it necessary or convenient to revise Mark (and other resources--see Luke 1:1-2).  Indeed, Luke writes for a new audience, one which is increasingly Gentile in origin, culture, and geography.  More specifically, the readers of this new Gospel and its sequel Acts are increasingly Hellenistic in culture and perspective and are involved more intimately in the culture and affairs of the Greco-Roman world.   The Jesus movement itself is undergoing, at this time, a pervasive change from its Jewish/Semitic world-view to one that is increasingly Hellenistic, at first Jewish Hellenistic, and then more properly Gentile Greek.  The community's sources, its language generally, and social and religious culture becoming encreasingly Greek or Gentile.  Luke in many ways is a personification of this pervasive change.

            Luke's Gospel follows the Markan geographical outline of Judaea --> Galilee --> journey --> Jerusalem ministry --> last days in Jerusalem.  Luke adds a prologue (1:1-4), greatly expands the "John/Jesus" section of Mark (see outline given on class handout) by adding two long sections about these two characters' birth stories (chapters 1-2) and in general greatly expands narratives and adds speeches (e.g., 6:17-49: the Sermon on the Plain) or sayings materials to the Markan outline.  Luke used Mark's "hometown narrative" as a programmatic episode to begin Jesus' Galilean ministry (4:14-36 = Mark 6:1-6a).  Especially, Luke expands the Markan journey of Jesus going from Galilee to Jerusalem (10:1-52, i.e., one chapter) into a 10 chapter journey of Jesus teaching his disciples and the crowds, as he goes to his destiny and ultimately to God's right hand via Jerusalem (9:51f --> 19:28f --> 24:53).  The ending of the story varies greatly from the Markan version and of course prepares for the Lukan sequel, the Acts of the Apostles.   The latter is an entirely new story, not about Jesus but about his followers and the spread of the good news from Jerusalem to Rome (the ends of the earth--see Acts 1:8b).  Indeed in 1:8b one learns of the work's overall structure, a geographically based one: long stay in Jerusalem (chapters 1-7), then a move to Samaria and Judaea and further north of Palestine 8-12), and then a long section consisting primarily of the missionary journeys of Paul and companions, Paul's arrest, and eventual arrival, as a prisoner, in Rome (13-28).

            Luke is a relatively good stylist who often employs rhetorical devises, and presents characters in a dramatic fashion.  Luke in effect has a good sense both of dramatic events and of unforgettable characters (Zechariah, Elizabeth, Joseph, Mary, Simeon, Anna, Zecchaeus, the good Samaritan, etc).  Luke is particularly interested in history (historical consciousness: see references to Emperors, kings, governors: 1:5; 2:1f; 3:1f; etc), in geography, in the universal mission (contrast Mark 1:3 and Luke 3:4-6), in humanistic, economic, political, and social concerns (see Luke's treatment of the "mountain,î of the "lake," of  syncronisms, Roman apologetics).  The Gospel approaches more fully what we would characterize as a biography with Jesus as the consummate hero.  The Acts of the Apostles is a historical monograph (in an ancient mode--one can't expect modern standards and taste) of the Jesus movement's early years.   The two works are written very much as parallel lives of the master on the one hand and of the absent Lord and his followers on the other.  The two works parallel each other (introductory prologues, programmatic episodes and speeches, and initial focus on the Spirit) and are written as continuous or closely related sequels--they are a first and a second book (Acts 1:1); the beginning of Acts overlaps with the ending of the gospel (see focus on witness, staying in the city of Jerusalem, on the reception of the Father's promise of the Spirit, on the recitation of Jesus' ascension into heaven, and the followers' return to the city thereafter--see Luke 24:47f and Acts 1:4f).

            Luke's work then is both a rewriting of Mark and other forms of the Jesus tradition for a new audience and a new day and a first attempt to speak of the followers' life in the world of the Roman empire.  Jesus may very well be gone and, according to Luke, is very much a heavenly figure who resides at God's right hand, but he is also the ever present figure who is recognized in the breaking of the bread (see Luke 24:31), who speaks to his followers (Acts 9:4f), who bestows the Spirit, and works through his followers for the benefit of all flesh (Luke 3:6).  Jesus is center stage in the gospel and never far off stage in Acts.

            We next turn our attention to the Gospel itself--the Gospel of Luke as literature.

            Thus, having focused in class on Matthew's revision of Mark as well as much use of Q and M material to supplement the "Markan story of Jesus," also having focused on Matthew's considerable modification of the tradition (through expansion, grouping and other editorial activity), having focused further on Matthew's structural concerns, whether a fivefold action/speech structure for the central part of the gospel or a threefold, biographical scheme for the overall gospel (presenting exposition, mission, and destiny of the main character), and finally having focused on Matthew's Jewish concerns, presenting the community as the true Israel and especially presenting Jesus as the new Israel (new Moses, son of David/Abraham, faithful Jew, one who fulfills the Law and the prophets, etc), we now turn more fully to the basic question of "why."   There are many reasons why Matthew wrote, so in  assessing this Gospel, one might well ask a first question:
                  "What prompted Matthew to revise Mark?  The answer, to put it bluntly, is that Mark was no longer adequate
                        to meet the needs of Matthew's church.  This can be seen especially well in the areas of Christology, eccle-
                        siology, and the history of salvation" (Kingsbury, cited on class handout).
Mark presented the community's story (witness: Matthew borrowed 90% of Mark) but Matthew's community had different needs (not a response to false apocalypticism as in Mark) and the author had different ideas about Christ and his role, about the community and its character, and about God's plan for human salvation.

            One might ask further why Matthew's Gospel is so different from that of Mark.  For one thing Matthew, the Jewish Christian who was writing for a predominantly Jewish-Christian community, found the need not only to retell the story of Jesus to address new community needs and issues but also to address the issue, in a time of Jewish crisis, about who is "the true Israel," or what happens after the seeming destruction of Palestine/Israel in 70 A.D. by the Romans.  One might cite the following:
                  'For fifteen years or so the religious and political center of Judaism had been destroyed.  The heart of Jewish
                        piety--the temple--had ceased to function, and all Judaism had to answer the question, Who is the true Israel?
                        Apocalypticists like the authors of 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch clung to the hope that those who remain faithful in
                        the present tribulation will finally be rewarded when God's kingdom comes.  Political revolutionaries like
                        the Zealots continued the armed struggle for a while only to go down to defeat at Masada.   Law-oriented
                        Jews like the scribes and Pharisees joined Yohanan ben Zakkai in his rabbinical academy at Yavneh (Jamnia)
                        by the Mediterranean coast and devoted themselves to the understanding and observance of the biblical
                        statutes and the traditions surrounding them.  Christians like Matthew answered that the Church is now 'the
                        true Israel' in that Jesus of Nazareth is the Messiah of Jewish expectation and the fulfillment of the Old Testa-
                        ment promises' (Harrington, cited on class handout).
Matthew attempts repeatedly to show the readers that they (the Jewish-Christian community, with its Gentile members also) are "the true Israel," the new people who have inherited the vineyard (see Matt 21:41 & 43).  It is not the 'synagogue across the street' (see Donahue, Gospel in Parable, 85f) but Matthew's church which is the heir to Israel's claim to be God's people, the one that has inherited the 'eternally-valid Law' and the Jewish Messiah, i.e., Jesus the son Abraham.  In describing Matthew's purpose one would have to agree with the following:
                  'Matthew's two major convictions, both of which are made explicit in his gospel, are (1) that the Law of God,
                        as given to ancient Israel, is eternally valid and (2) that Jesus is the final agent and plenipotentiary through
                        whom God's purpose in the world is being consummated (Matt. 15:17-18).  Putting the two beliefs together,
                        one can say that for Matthew, Jesus is the inaugurator of the true Israel, the people through and among whom
                        God's ultimate purpose for man is to be achieved" (Kee, cited on class handout)

            So why did Matthew write?  To update Mark, surely, but especially to assist the Jewish Christian (and even the Gentile) members of the community to assess their Jewish heritage in terms of God's role (theology: God's eternal plan for Israel and the nations), of Jesus' role (christology: God's special, final agent, Messiah who is eternally present with God's people and who, on the mountain, initiates a new age with Jesus as teacher and master--see 28:16f; 23:8, 10), and of the community's character and mission (ecclesiology and ethics: a community open to all, true to its Jewish heritage, and challenged ethically and theologically to be or live as 'the true Israel' of God).

            God's promise (and Law) to Israel continues to be valid in the new, true Israel (or Church), for it is Matthew's Jewish-Christian community that has accepted the Messiah of Jewish expectation.  Indeed, according to Matthew, Jesus is eternally present as "God with us"  (1:23; 28:20) and speaks God's message and interprets God's Law for Jew and Gentile.  Matthew then is about Jewish-Christian claims as they are expressed in dialogue with "the synagogue across the street" (or Jewish contemporaries) and  proclaimed to the Jewish Christian community as it launches its world-wide mission to baptize all nations (28:18-20).

            In our study, Matthew's parables will be situated into the above context to underscore Matthew's christology, view of discipleship, and in general the Matthean view of the Jesus movement.

            Clearly Matthew has borrowed greatly from Mark's Gospel, indeed 90% of the Markan material finds its way in some shape or form in the new Matthew story.  While the evangelist also borrows considerably from the Q-Source and oral tradition, it is clearly Mark that provides the overall plot and structure, a structure which Matthew reshapes for a new audience and purpose.  Scholars have readily employed the following terms to describe Matthew's techniques for reshaping Mark: the evangelist expands, rearranges/groups, abridges, and clarifies the Markan text.  There are also omissions and substitutions, as well as a love for symmetry and balance.

            Matthew adds to the beginning of the Markan story (chapters 1 and 2: genealogy, birth story, episodes about the wise men/magi, about the attempt to kill the child, etc) and also to its ending (chapter 28: resurrection appearances and a final commission on a mountain in Galilee).  To the now-familiar Markan plot Matthew adds three new long speeches and expands two Markan ones (chapters 5-7, 10, 13, 18, 24-25, all of whose endings are marked by the verbatim formula: "and when Jesus hand finished [saying]..."--see earlier discussion).  Beyond this Matthew expands preexisting stories or blocks of material (see for example the temptations--4:1-22 and the story about John the Baptist and Jesus--3:1f).  Many of these expansions and additions are motivated by a desire to underscore a Moses typology (there are many indications of this: mountain, 5 books, etc) or more generally a concern to emphasize Jewish issues and themes.

            Of course Matthew also rearranges many stories, e.g., various Markan and other miraculous episodes are grouped in chapters 8-9 (see later discussion of Moses and the 10 plagues).  Matthew groups "blessed" sayings (or beatitudes) in chapter 5, Jewish works of piety in chapter 6, 6 discussions of Jewish themes involving the formula "it was said to you...but I say to you" (see chapter 5 also).  Of course the threefold and fivefold structures are related to repeated formulas as are the numerous "woe" sayings of chapter 23.  While these and other such stylistic features address the issue of Matthew the writer, they also shed light on many of Matthew's important themes: Israel and the Jesus movement and the community's theology, christology, ecclesiology, and morality.  At the center of this editing of Mark and other tradition is Jesus, the new Israel, the son of Abraham, who fulfills the Law (5:17), who even recreates the history of the old Israel (see Matt 2:13f).

            What we find here is a Jewish-Christian community that is concerned about its Jewish heritage, a community that is in dialogue or conflict with the local synagogue, that is, fellow Jews.  The Matthean community is convinced that it is God's people, the new Israel--a study of Matthean editing or redaction reveals this feature repeatedly.  More on this issue, and the purpose for writing later.

            Why a new gospel?  One can answer that question in so many ways that one only need emphasize briefly that a later community and evangelist, with new concerns, a new setting in life, and unique problems to face in their christian community, produced a life of the master that more fully addressed their own needs.  Matthew is a better writer than Mark and so continually improves the now-venerable Gospel of Mark (see discussion of Matthean style, vocabulary and creativity in Jesus, 133f).  More importantly Matthew addressed new issues and expressed a clearly different christology and ecclesiology (views about Jesus and the church respectively).

            On a surface level, Matthew's Gospel is very similar to that of Mark; indeed, it is also called a Synoptic gospel.  However, any serious look at this text will reveal a striking dissimilarity in structure, content, tone, and theology.  On the one hand, Matthew has greatly expanded Mark, first by adding lengthy introductions (infancy stories) and conclusions (resurrections tories), by adding considerably to Mark's parable and apocalyptic speech chapters (4 & 13  of Mark versus 13 & 24-25 of Matthew), and by constructing three new speeches in chapters 5-7 (sermon on the mount), chapter 10 (mission discourse), and chapter 18 (community discourse).  Each of these merits detailed study to discern Matthean interests.  This author certainly  speaks more frequently and is repeatedly engaged in giving such long speeches (add also 23 and 28, where Jesus also speaks at length).  In fact the curtain of the narrative comes down as Jesus is speaking and promises to be with his followers until the end of the age (28:20).

            On the other hand, Jesus is certainly more obviously Jewish in this gospel.  Thus, the center of this gospel is  punctuated by five major narrative and speech blocks of material, indicated by the fivefold formula "and when Jesus had finished [saying/preaching, etc]." In this way Matthew seemingly signals five speech sections as a parallel to the five Books of Moses (the pentateuch).  Many other Jewish themes, interests and concerns are addressed repeatedly by Matthew (these we will see in future installments on Matthew).  Clearly, Matthew is writing for a Jewish Christian community and wishes to address their interests and concerns.   Also, the overall narrative is devoted  to the three parts of classical biography: an introduction or beginning (1:1-4:16), the hero's mission (4:17-16:20), and the hero's destiny (16:21-28:20)--these divisions are clearly indicated by the twofold formula: "from that time Jesus began to proclaim" in 4:17 and "from that time Jesus began to show his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem...be killed, and on the third day be raised" in 16:21.  Matthew, then, may be greatly dependent on Mark (use of 90% of that gospel) but is a vastly different literary and theological creation, which borrows from other sources as well (the Q-Source and oral tradition).  From a literary, narrative, and structural perspective Matthew is indeed a very different vita than is Mark.

            In our next encounter we will examine Matthew as a revision, indeed a Jewish revision of Mark.  We will focus on Matthean redaction, editing, or rewriting of Mark (also of Q) to detect the author's and community's character and concerns.

            From a serious study of Mark chapter 13 we learn that the community, or many of its members, believe that the end is near, that the anti-Christ is at bay, that the signs of the times are clear for the reading (wars, famines, rampant evil, and cosmic and civil turmoil--see 13:5-8, 21-25).  The community thinks that Jesus ia a warrior (or Son of Man--see Mark 14:62 and Dan 7:13) who is coming soon to rescue the community from its problems and persecution (see 4:13-20). Mark insists that Jesus is a suffering/rising Son of Man (8:31f --> also he is one who will return in the future as warrior/judge: 13:26-27 and 14:62), but especially Jesus is one who does God's will (as "a man for others") and so is God's Beloved One--the one in whom God is well pleased (1:11).  Mark hopes that the reader and members of the community for whom the text is written will confess and accept the profound conclusion that Jesus is indeed "God's Son," as confessed by the Roman centurion (15:39), as revealed by the heavenly voice (1:11; 9:7), as confessed by Jesus himself (14:61), and as demonstrated by his whole life and ministry.  The present time of the intended readers or Markan community (expressed as the disciples' life and mission) should not be a period of anxious waiting for suffering to end but a time for imitating Jesus (carrying cross even--see 8:34f) and being on the road to mission (16:7).  Indeed, Jesus is on the road to Galilee and beyond and insists that the good news must be preached to all before the end comes (13:10).

            Finally, there follows some more imaginative comments on Mark's strategy and message in the form of a "dialogue with Mark."
Imagine Mark's thinking & response to the situation:

            Mark is speaking/writing to a specific early community:
                                       you think the end of the world has come (13:6f),
                                                                  and you think Jesus is returning immediately,
                                                                  and that he is Son of Man (heavenly/warrior-like, & judge),
                                                                  and you withdraw from & protect yourselves from the world;
                                                                  you think discipleship is withdrawal & awaiting the imminent end.

            (Response)        I insist that things are otherwise--

            (Strategy)          I will write a life of Jesus to prove/teach otherwise:
                                                 the end is not yet (13:7f);
                                                 you are misreading the signs of the times
                                                                       (persecution, famines, war, etc are really regular activities--even this atrocious Roman war)!
                                                 you are misunderstanding who Jesus is:
                                                     he is God's Son & Holy Man, here to liberate, to lead to God, to preach
                                                                                            & to invite you to discipleship (be like him) --> follow him;
                                                                       even as Son of Man he is yet to come
                                                                                            --> but if you want to call him Son of Man, he is not now a
                                                                                            warrior-like figure but a dying/rising Son of Man --> only at
                                                                                            the end will he come on the clouds with power (13:26/14:62);
                                                                       he is the teacher who speaks in God's name;
                                                 if you have a true sense of who Jesus is
                                                     as Messiah/Christ, as Son of God, as God's beloved one, as one who speaks in God's name
                                                                                            ('listen to him'--9:7),
                                                                       then you will understand
                                                                                            what Christianity is about,
                                                                                            what the community must do before the end (13:10)
                                                                                            --what Jesus has done & is doing even now
                                                                                                        --> on the road preaching & calling disciples to follow him (16:7)

                                        then you will understand that Jesus is God's Son & Holy Man (as the gospel shows),
                                                that he pleases God in his life/death/resurrection & now demands:
                                                that you/his disciples follow him on the way

            Christianity or discipleship, Mark insists, is
                                        not about a negative view of the world (no matter how warranted),
                                        not about awaiting Jesus' return as a warrior Son of Man in the near future,
                                        but about taking up one's cross (suffering, when the going  gets rough) --> like
                                                Jesus --> leading in service/pleasing God (your will--14:36)
                                        but about following him on the way, about preaching (light shining, good news to
                                               all), about producing (fruit).

            One can call Jesus the Christ (1:1; 8:29),
                                       but only in view of the whole story of his life and teaching
                                                can one really say 'indeed, this man was the Son of God' (15:39)
                                                                and thereby subscribe to God's point of view (1:11; 9:7; see 8: 33b),
                                       says Mark.

A Study of Mark's Themes and Structure (2)

            Beyond the basic geographical outline we have seen and even beyond the usual thematic presentations one regularly sees in printed Bible versions (whether employing generic titles such as "preparation for the ministry," preaching the kingdom in word and deed," "success and opposition, " or other more tendentious titles such as "the king comes to Jerusalem" or "Jesus is rejected and executed by the Jews" or Jewish authorities, and especially titles dealing with the "mystery" of Jesus or his story), one must look for Mark's "depth" structure, the dynamics of the text which provide clues and reveal the author's intention and purpose in telling Jesus' story in a particular way.  By examining the Gospel's plot in relation to the titles ("Son of Man, "Son of God," and "Christ/Messiah," especially) it employs for Jesus, as well as its major themes (commands of silence, passion/resurrection predictions, etc), one hopes to gain a better idea of the story's structure.  One looks especially to see where in the plot these various titles and features appear, whether in the first half of the story (commands of silence, the first heavenly message) or the second half (focused use of the title Son of Man, the second message by the heavenly voice, the repeated address of Jesus as "teacher") or in strategic or climactic sections of the narrative.  (Hope the reading of a variety of passages in class was not too disconcerting!)

            In light of the above one finds that Mark falls roughly into two parts: 1:1-8:21 and 8:22-16:8 and that each part has its own focus, dynamics, and message.  What follows is a brief summary and statement concerning the two parts of the story--partly I am jumping ahead here and will return next class to this twofold structure.

            1:1f (or first part of gospel) is unified by the secrecy motif: Jesus, according to Mark, issues orders of silence to allow his deeds and words to reveal who he is.  Even the heavenly voice speaks to Jesus alone (1:11--"you are").  Jesus is declared "Son of God," one in whom God is well pleased (see Ps 2:7 for background and meaning).  The first part of the gospel is dedicated to showing how Jesus is God's Beloved Son.  He acts (in God's name) for others; he reveals love, mercy, and kingdom.  Note also that Jesus' miracles occur mainly in the first part of the Gospel.  This first section focuses greatly on rejection: by authorities (3:6), by his family/country (6:4-5), and by his disciples (profound misunderstanding: 8:21).

            8:21f is no longer dominated by the commands of silence (which quickly cease: 8:30; 9:9).  Miracles also cease, though two, clearly symbolic, miracles of sight (8:22-26 and 10:46-52) serve as focus for a section on faith and misunderstanding in relation to Jesus' destiny and identity as one who suffers, dies, and is raised.  Instead Mark begins to focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus (8:31; 9:31; 10:33--remember also the pattern of each: Son-of-Man saying about death/resurrection, misunderstanding, and Jesus' teaching about true discipleship).  Just as the theme of secrecy of the first part is introduced by a heavenly voice (1:11) so the themes of Jesus' death and resurrection are underscored by the second voice (9:7), for there the characters in the story (and the gospel reader) are commanded to approach Jesus as teacher ("listen to him").  He is one who teaches about the Son of Man's death and resurrection (chapters 8, 9, 10), about doing God's will (14:36), about faith only in light of the resurrection (9:9), about confession of Jesus as Son of Man who will return in the future (13:26; 14:62) and as Son of God who is "a man for others" (10:45).

            A final note is needed here concerning a third heavenly message in 16:6-7.  There a heavenly figure (dressed in white) announces that Jesus of Nazareth is not a dead man but a risen Lord who leads the community in mission (16:7; 13:10).  The community, rather than idly waiting for the end of the world (read 13:5-10), must be active in the world and preach the good news (13:10).  It must let its light shine before others (4:21)--they must be like Jesus: "men for others."

            Mark wrote for a specific community and, we may presume, to address the problems and needs of these early believers. The story of Jesus as a unified whole did not exist before Mark, though we must assume that the community, over the few decades that separated the first gospel from the time of Jesus, had eyewitnesses, ministers of the word, and more technically story tellers (see Luke 1:2 for example), who recalled the sayings, actions, and story of Jesus during the community's liturgies, its catechetical (study/teaching), and kerygmatic (preaching) sessions or activity.  What probably existed at an early stage were isolated sayings and narratives about Jesus and most probably a loose collection of stories about Jesus' last days (the passion and resurrection narratives). The process might be described in this way:
            After the death of Jesus the traditions about him passed through three distinct stages.  First
            was the stage of oral traditions, when the stories and sayings of Jesus were transmitted by
            those who retold them in sermons, debates, and liturgies.  The second stage was the col-
            lection of similar stories and sayings into longer units.  Probably the earliest was the passion
            narrative (stories about Jesus' death), but there were also collections of miracle stories and
            sayings collections.  Some of these collections may have been written down during this stage;
            scholars believe this was the case with Q.  In the third stage written gospels appear, probably
            beginning with Mark (D.L. Barr on course handout).

            Our three days of study of the Gospel of Mark will focus on a series of areas, beginning with the work's various literary characteristics, then its themes and structure, and finally will examine the intended audience's situation and the concomitant strategy used by the author to address the community's concerns and thereby to arrive at an understanding of the author's message in writing the first gospel.

            The plot of Mark is well known to the Bible and indeed Christian reader generally.  The story begins with the appearance of John at the River Jordan (Judaea), who introduces Jesus at the baptism scene.  The story quickly shifts to Galilee (1:14f) where Jesus begins to gather disciples, heals various ills and preaches to the crowds of the North.  After an extended narrative about his preaching activity throughout Galilee and beyond (Tyre and Sidon--note the stories about his passion/resurrection predictions and repeated rejection and misunderstandings), Jesus begins a long journey south to Judaea  via Transjordan (see 10:1), and finally arrives in Jerusalem and its environs prior to the Passover (see 11:1 and 14:1).  He will then preach in Jerusalem and spend his final days in the Holy City (chapters 11-16), whether entering the city triumphantly, driving out money changers from the temple, preaching about the endtime or preparing for and participating in his last meal with disciples, prayer, and trial and death.  The story ends by speaking of the empty tomb and a command for the disciples to follow Jesus to Galilee (16:1-8)--of course, we did not quite make it to the end in class!

            This short narrative is far too simple for the historical reality which was Jesus.  In geographical terms we find Jesus going from Judaea (Jordan River) in the South to Galilee in the North back to Judaea, this time to Jerusalem.  In temporal terms Jesus seemingly ministers for less than a year, since only one Passover is mentioned in  Mark--one could, of course, postulate (on the basis of no evidence--argument from silence), that Jesus spent several years in Galilee preaching to the crowds (the data from the Gospel of John are recognized as being historically unreliable).  One thing is clear, on the Markan level one must note the author's astute use of climaxes to keep the story of Jesus moving through successive crises and climaxes to reach the ultimate climax of the crucifixion in chapter 15.  Additionally, Mark makes interesting use of characters, whether crowds, sympathetic minor characters or bumbling and obtuse followers (see especially the contrasting and still negative character portrayals of Peter the leader and Judas the traitor), and adversarial religious and political authorities.  All relate to the author's portrayal of the main character, Jesus.  Lastly, one should note Mark's gradual and repeated introduction of stories about followers to unify the Gospel's treatment of the theme of Christian discipleship, whether call, mission, or teaching stories (see 1:16-20; 2:13-14; 3:13-19; 6:7-13; etc).  Also one would appreciate the astute way Mark treats the major theme of Jesus' arrest and passion by employing a foreshadowing technique, whether by speaking early of John's arrest and death (1:14; 6:14-29) or indirectly of Jesus impending departure or death (2:20; 3:6f).

            This story, which we call Mark's Gospel, is the author's creation.  Mark employed a holy man typology to present Jesus as one who does God's bidding, who fights on God's side, who unburdens, consoles, heals, and rescues men and women by using his God-given powers.  Jesus, for Mark and the early community, is one who, in doing God's will, releases people from the power of evil to serve God or be on God's side (see Roetzel's treatment of the theme of the holy man in "Demons and Holy Men"--The World That Shaped the NT, chap 5).

            Before starting our study of Mark, the first extended life of Jesus, we pause briefly to discuss the development of the Jesus tradition.  As early believers began to discuss more seriously and extensively the role of Jesus in God's plan for salvation (the christological concerns of the early movement; see Jesus, 63-77), more and more attention was given to Jesus' post-resurrection activity (where is he; what affect does his salvific death have upon his followers?--the forward movement of the kerygmatic structure) and ministerial activity or life more generally (his teaching and activity, his origins--the backward movement), so eyewitnesses and ministers of the word (Luke 1:1 4) began to collect these materials as they were recited and used in the Church's liturgy, teaching, and preaching (idem, 77-85 and class handout: diagram from D.L. Barr).  The Jesus material, as it related to the community's essential teaching (the kerygma) went through several stages of oral development.  Presumably some early Christians served as story tellers, particularly at liturgical celebrations,  who preserved the community's tradition--much as is done in oral cultures.  The community invariably focused on Jesus, his teaching, and his salvific role.  As the material which the founder had taught and the acts which he had performed were remembered and used by the early followers these took on an increasingly ecclesial tone and character as the church focused on Jesus (see Jesus, chapter 3 more generally) as a holy man sent by God "to unburden the oppressed, console the desperate, heal the sick, and rescue the humble poor from their plight and degradation" (C.J. Roetzel, The World That Shaped the NT, p. 100--read this illuminating chapter 5: "Demons and Holy Men").  Early believers increasingly saw their master as one sent by God with powers as sign of God's power and of the arrival of the kingdom to save humanity from evil and to show God's favor on a desperate human situation.  Jesus was seen as one who releases people from "the frustration and fear of a people caught in a dark web closing in on them" (World, p. 105) and led them to freedom.  Jesus also was seen as one who was in the process of revealing God's mysteries (knowledge/sharing of the divine) and as one who did God's will, a holy man who was a model of human behavior.  It was in the midst of this long oral process of traditional development (from 30s to 70s) that Mark struck upon the idea of composing a life of the master to address a given community's notions about christology and christian discipleship in view of the assumed, near end of the world (see Jesus, chapter 4 on the Gospel of Mark).  Mark saw Jesus' life as a sign of God's incipient victory over evil.  Thus one encounters heavenly voices, witnesses the repeated defeat of Satan and his legions in exorcisms, in the healing of many sick people and in the experience of Jesus' death and resurrection.  God's power, in Mark's story, is vindicated in Jesus' resurrection and hope is given in the promise of his return.  Mark then has used the biography or timeline as the organizing mechanism for the inherited tradition.  Jesus is God's holy man acting against the forces of evil and on behalf of human salvation.   Reread Roetzel's article and be ready to read Mark's Gospel from beginning to end.  Please come prepared with a knowledge of the plot of Mark's story (see and use the handout on "plot").

            Finally, an introduction to the NT is brief, of necessity, but its importance can hardly be exaggerated.  Without a serious appreciation of the multiple factors that contributed to the composition of these works, without a common-sensical approach to these ancient literary texts, and without an even more serious and honest consideration of what each author intended to communicate to an intended audience, the NT and its various works will fail to yield its rich heritage to you its extended reader--and I believe the texts will not really be read as literature.  There are many puzzles to be considered in this NT anthology (see Jesus, chapter 1), but these can and should be approached with open-minded, systematic, and meditative work by the modern reader/student.

4. Form Criticism
             Scholars have isolated the different "forms" employed by the gospel writers, whether parables, miracles, macarisms, pronouncement stories, etc.  Each unit has a form or shape and that form owes to its use and reuse during the process of oral transmission.  The method of form criticism then deals not with the structure, shape, or plan of the author's work or gospel but rather with the form or shape of the numerous small units used by the authors to tell the story of Jesus.  This discovery of "forms" came about through the study of oral literature and the realization that the oral transmission of narrative and discourse material invariably led to its acquiring formalized shapes; for example, miracles tended to acquire similar shapes (introduction or setting, occasion or request for action, words of command, miraculous effect, awe or fear as the reaction of onlookers, often a question or statement of reaction/comment, and also often a return to the original setting); similar statements can be made for other forms.  Call stories, parables, controversy stories, all have distinctive shapes called "forms."  Form criticism then aims to isolate, identify, and to study further the shape of and role played by these traditional units or forms.  Gospel commentaries freely discuss the form characteristics of units a gospel reader would encounter in the text (see Jesus, 82-83, for a list of forms).

5. Redaction Criticism
            Often also called composition analysis, this method focuses first of all on how an author has used specific units, forms, or elements of the tradition in composing a scene or more generally in telling the life of Jesus.  How does an author edit or redact a text borrowed from Mark or Q?  What changes, additions has Matthew or Luke imposed on the text of Mark?  Do Luke or Matthew emphasize different elements, reorganize the episode and place it in a different, modified, or new context?  Redaction criticism focuses on the evangelist as author or writer rather than as collector of units (as does form criticism).   It is concerned about what the author does with the tradition or unit of tradition being used and then seeks to explain the reasons for the changes.  By understanding the various, numerous changes imposed upon the textual units and/or tradition one begins to understand the various tendencies, interests, and purpose of the gospel writer.  Beyond such a comparative study (e.g., how Matthew's version of an episode or sayings unit compares with that of Mark?--see examples given in class of both Matthean and Lukan use of Markan episodes), redaction criticism or composition analysis looks more broadly (as a type of literary criticism) at what the author is saying or claiming, how the author organizes the material, in effect, the redaction critic seeks to discern a work's structure to understand why its writer wrote and what the work's message might be.  See the exaples seen in class for both "form" and "redaction."

6. A Final Note
             There are tools one might use.  A good translation or two (the NRSV and another) might help the student to discern more fully the meaning of the original (especially since the Greek is not directly accessible).  A synopsis (e.g., Throckmorton, Gospel Parallels) will help the student to see in parallel columns the texts one might want to compare when dealing with the Synoptic Gospels.  Also, one should be careful about important textual variants that might occur for a text being read or studied (area of textual criticism--see Mark 16:8; will be discussed in class).  Good solid, academic commentaries are a must for insightful reading and pastoral and personal use of texts.  Consult Harrington, Interpreting the NT and Jesus, chap 2, for further reading on the methods.   (See diagram: "The Two-Source Hypothesis"--from C.M. Jones, New Testament Illustrations, pl. 172.

          We will now turn more specifically to the gospels and their formation and then to the Synoptics themselves.  (Questions are welcome!)  First however we will look at formation of the Gospel Tradition; read Jesus, chap. 3 and also and especially The World that shaped the NT, chap 5 (this chapter will knock off your socks!).  Bring your Bibles to class.

1. Reading NT
            Reading itself is an art.  It is a craft we have learned over the years and one which still baffles the lazy and inattentive.  Actors are not born; directors (of plays, etc) are the product of much labor and insightful living and reading.  Readers, likewise, must be mindful of authors and readers, of tone, and style and logic.  Readers must be attentive concerning characters, points of view, and especially of genre of text being read and of purpose and message being conveyed.
            How does this apply to the New Testament?  Despite much experience you may have had personally or see in others, you must read NT texts in the same manner--like literary texts, an activity that requires the same skills and effort.

2. Literary Criticism
            This expression refers to the analysis, by modern scholar or student, of all features of a literary text.  What questions does one ask of a text: who wrote it, why; what type or genre is it; what is its structure; what images and other literary features does it employ?  Is it narrative, epistolary, or visionary literature?  If it is a narrative, what characters does it put into its plot?  If one is dealing with a unit of a larger work, one needs to exam how it fits into the larger work in terms of plot, of argument, or structure more generally.  How does the smaller unit contribute to the work's more general purpose?  Literary analysis presumes that an author wrote a text for a hearer or reader and that the words, images, and structural features used are the means chosen by the author to communicate with the reader.  All features of a literary work or unit thereof are subject to literary analysis or scrutiny.  Finally, the expression "literary criticism" can include all the methods used by scholars to examine texts (namely, the methods discussed below; for this method as well as for the following ones, see Harrington, Interpreting the NT and Jesus, 50f).

3. Source Criticism
            This  expression designates the process whereby scholars search for and discuss the sources or resources employed by an author to produce a work or part thereof.  While the gospel writers made much use of the Jewish Scriptures to formulate their stories about Jesus (see Jesus, 81-82), they nonetheless found the Jesus material they used in other sources; one must admit that the main concern of the method in this case is the resolution and explanation of what is called the Synoptic problem, i.e., how does one explain the great similarities and the equally enormous differences between Matthew, Mark, and Luke which have a similar overall story of Jesus (i.e., a synoptic view of events).  Almost all scholars use the "two-source hypothesis" to explain the relation between the three: Mark wrote first relying entirely on oral tradition for the content of the story, while Matthew and Luke relied greatly on Mark for the majority of their material as well as sequence of events (Matthew uses c. 90% & Luke 50/60% of Mark).  Also, they use the Q source and additional oral material.  In studying a unit of Matthew's Gospel (or that of Luke) one needs briefly to establish the source(s) of the passage and basically the relation of Matthew's texts to the presumed source.  The originality of Matthew's version is then examined by employing redaction criticism.   See diagram of  "two-source hypothesis."

        Within a Semitic milieu and culture (with centuries of Hebrew and Aramaic cross-fertilization) the late arrival of Western culture in Palestine and the Eastern Mediterranean basin generally (Greek in the late 4th century with Alexander's conquests and Latin in the 1st century BC with Pompey's intervention), Palestine and its environs were a veritable polyglot phenomena.   Indeed, we might very well characterize the New Testament as the product of a Jewish/Semitic population whose thoughts and activity were deeply influenced by Greek language and culture and the political and social presence of Rome.  Indeed, these Christian books owe a great deal to all of the above, whether Alexander and the influence of Greek culture or the power and culture of the Roman empire.

         On the one hand, Jesus, the Jewish, Aramaic-speaking prophet from the rural areas of Galilee encountered the Aramaic-speaking crowds of North and South (Jesus was a Galilean from the North, much of his opposition were Jerusalemites from the South--this involved cultural, linguistic, and religious differences), discoursed with the Hebrew-using Jewish authorities of the synagogues and the Jerusalem temple and probably confronted them in the official worship places of his homeland (Pharisees, Scribes, Sadducees, high priests), had occasion to encounter Greek-speaking dignitaries, higher-ranking officials and military personnel (centurions) and even underwent the judgment of the Greek speaking Roman procurator, and finally must have encountered and even carried the baggage of the ever-present Roman soldiers (whose language was Latin) and tax-collectors (the latter of whom may have spoken three of the above languages).  On the other hand, while the obvious linguistic differences have disappeared in the Gospel texts (for all four gospels employ Greek without noting the language habits of the different characters in the gospel story), the subtle differences and influences of the cultural and linguistic factors remain and continue to challenge the modern (astute) reader.  The complex interaction of languages and cultures in a multilingual society is a fascinating topic and one well worth our while to investigate and appreciate (see Jesus, 37-50).

            Beyond this cultural interest there is a veritable ocean of knowledge needed to appreciate the nuances and even understand the basics of the lives and thought presented in our NT anthology: what is a messiah? what does a prophet do? What does Son of Man mean?  why is there opposition to Jesus' preaching and mission?  Further there are political, economic, cultural, and religious factors that influence the actors' activity and decisions.  There are customs and ways of thinking and believing that clash or resist the preaching both of Jesus and his early disciples.  Why drive out money changers when they ostensibly facilitate divinely enjoined sacrifice in the temple?  Why is meat "offered to the deities" or idols a problem in the Pauline churches?  Why is Paul unhappy about tongue-speaking and eucharistic practices at Corinth (see 1 Corinthians 11-14)?  Why are the Gospels of Matthew and John so severe vis-a-vis Judaism?  How can one Christian author be concerned about the well-being of the Roman emperor (1 Peter 2:17) and another consider Rome as a harlot or beast of the endtime (Book of Revelation)?

            Much more could be said here about cultural clashes, whether between prudish Semitic social customs and the exhibitionist tendencies of the Greek and Roman world (dressing/nudity), or the polytheistic and relativistic beliefs and practices of the contemporary pagan world and the jealous monotheistic and exacting morality of the Jewish and early Christian communities.  One should even note the Jewish concern lest anyone should express familiarity with the Almighty (Yahweh) and Jesus' or the Christian's (seemingly blasphemous) familiarity in calling God "my or our Father."   Further, the cosmopolitan culture of both the writers and audiences of the NT writings had a great influence on what we today read in our early christian anthology.  The Jesus movement took an important clue from its Greek setting as it set its face toward the "ends of the earth" (Acts 1:9) to bring its message to those beyond the Jewish and Hellenistic worlds, even to those they might consider "barbaroi" or gentiles.

       A solid historical-social overview of the NT period is both helpful and necessary for a serious reading of the NT anthology, whether a suitable knowledge of the history of Palestine and surrounding areas or familiarity with the social, religious, and political groups and individuals involved in the story of Jesus or of his early followers.   We did not really have time to address the final part of our notes: "the history of Palestine [and the Jesus movement] as related to Roman Emperors [and culture]".  The New Testament, especially as one goes beyond the gospel is an interesting study of how the Jesus movement spread and adapted in the Roman Empire.  As an insightful Loyola student recently commented at the end of this course: "Instead of interpreting a 2000 year old text with one's own modern culture and language and [presuppositions and expectations], an understanding of the audience's culture and problems, and what was going on issue-wise, helps to create a whole new understanding of what the texts say."  Good luck & enjoy the reading!

            The New Testament is a collection or anthology of 27 early Christian works which various generations of early believers came to accept as normative for their beliefs and practice.   The collection contains a variety of genres or types of texts: four rather different gospels or lives of Jesus (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John), a historical narrative about the early years as the Jesus movement spread from Jerusalem to Rome (Acts of the Apostles), a long series of letters by Paul, Paul's disciples (Paulinists), and other early Christians who wrote in the names of early Christian disciples (some of these are tracts or sermons rather than letters), and a lengthy visionary text about the spread of evil and the end of the world (the Book of Revelation); see list or canon below.

            Proper reading of this collection calls for much common literary and historical common sense.  The works are disparate in style, intent, genre, and message. Further they are to be read in light of the purpose for which they were written.  They are without exception ancient, religious texts composed by early leaders of the community to address the pressing problems and needs of the various segments of the early Jesus movement.   We will spend considerable time getting acquainted with each work to discern the author's purpose for writing and the message communicated to the work's intended audience or readers (meaning then).

            Our goal as modern readers is to recreate the context of the original readers so that we too might, as extended (not intended) readers, understand the problems addressed by these texts and learn from the discussion, insights, and messages of the original writers. On the one hand, serious examination of the period's historical and cultural setting will assist us in discerning both the concerns of the writers/audiences and the historical subjects or persons about which they are writing (see Roetzel, World, chaps 1-3).  Also historical knowledge of the period will assist the extended audience in numerous ways in reading about ancient places, persons and events (see Harrington, Interpreting, pp. 109-13--given also as handout "Brief History").  On the other hand, acquaintance with sound literary methods will assist us in taking the texts seriously (text, translation), in approaching the writers with insight, understanding, and common sense (literary, source, form, redaction analysis--to be seen later), and learn from the experience and wisdom of early Christian believers and thinkers (meaning now; see Harrington, Interpreting, chap. 10).

            Thus, we conclude that these works are to be understood as ancient (with Greek, Roman, Jewish and Christian concerns and characteristics), religious (note their focus is theology not science or history), literature.  As regards these various characteristics, we will be obliged to consider their social, historical and cultural setting as ancient works, to situate these works in the religious context of first-century Palestine (Judaism especially) and the Mediterranean more generally (the subject of our next class--see reading for that day), and to apply to these literary entities the appropriate methods to analyze ancient literature (subject of a later class).  Thus, both historical and literary issues will be addressed in our study of the early Christian community's formative or canonical works.

            Of interest to us then are the ancient (Greek-writing) authors and their intended audiences, on the one hand, and our own process of reading these 27 works centuries later, on the other. Some academic work, methodological seriousness, much common sense, and a little artistic abandon will be required of each modern reader/studient.

Note on Canon (list, order, genre, chapters/length)
       Lives of Jesus or Vitas                    Pauline Letters (to individuals)
               Matthew (28)                                                                 1 Timothy (6)*
               Mark (16)                                                                       2 Timothy (4)*
               Luke (24)                                                                       Titus (3)*
               John (21)                                                                       Philemon (1)
       Acts or Historical Text                    Catholic Epistles or Tracts
               Acts of the Apostles (28)                                                Hebrews (13)
                                                                                                       James (5)
       Pauline Letters (to groups)                                                       1 Peter (5)
               Romans (16)                                                                     2 Peter (3)
               1 Corinthians (16)                                                            1 John (5)
               2 Corinthians (13)                                                            2 John (1)
               Galatians (6)                                                                    3 John (1)
               Ephesians (6)*                                                                 Jude (1)
               Philippians (4)
               Colossians (4)*                         Revelatory Text
               1 Thessalonians (5)                                                         Book of Revelation (22)
               2 Thessalonians (3)*                                                                 [* indicates Paulinist letters]

          For our next class consult Roetzel's World (chapters 1-3) and read Jesus, the first half of chapter 2.  Note also the following historical schema (also given as handout and in Jesus, pp. 36-37) for an understanding of the broader historical setting of both the life of Jesus and of the writing of the NT books.

A. They should be able to identify key religious terms, ideas, and institutions.
B. They should be able to locate sacred sites and geographic movements in the history of these religions.
C. They should be able to generate a timeline of major religious events in World Religions.
D. They should be able to compare fundamental teachings and central doctrines in these religions.

A. They should recognize important literary genres, literary styles, and religious motifs.
B. They should understand the principles of readings texts critically.
C. They should be able to interpret the texts and writings of major religious figures.
D. They should be able to compare intellectual positions of major thinkers and the ideas expressed in their texts.

A. They should be able to trace the development of concepts on the nature of God.
B. They should understand the formation process for canons of sacred literature, both among World Religions and Christianity.
C. They should be able to chart the emergence and development of liturgies, rituals, and systems of religious thought.

A. They should be able to cite components of faith and tradition in the various religions.
B. They should have critical insight into the systematic aspects of both faith and tradition in the various religions.
C. They should understand the internal complexities within various religious traditions.

A. They should have a basic knowledge of Catholic social teaching.
B. They should understand modes of ethical reasoning.
C. They should be able to apply ethical principles to contemporary situations.